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8 Sequential Steps To Write A First Rough Draft Of A Research Paper From Start To Finish

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Why A Research Paper Is Important

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How To Write A History Research Paper

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Royal Essay

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Where To Read Great Articles & Essays Online

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How I Made $0 60 In One Month Writing For Medium

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How I Made $0 60 In One Month Writing For Medium

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Does Marijuana Lead to the Use of Other Drugs

Does Marijuana Lead to the Use of Other Drugs Addiction Drug Use Marijuana Print Does Marijuana Lead to the Use of Other Drugs? By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on June 29, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on January 26, 2020 Is Marijuana Really a Gateway Drug?. © Getty Images More in Addiction Drug Use Marijuana Cocaine Heroin Meth Ecstasy/MDMA Hallucinogens Opioids Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery As more and more states around the U.S. decriminalize marijuanaâ€"also known as cannabisâ€"or approve the drug for medical or recreational use, it raises many questions by scientists. Like, how safe is it? Does it lead to harder drug use? The drug has been in use since ancient times. The earliest recorded use as a drug was 2737 BC in China. The drug made its entry to the New World in 1545 when the Spanish brought it and produced it as a commercial crop to make hemp fibers. In our modern world, many young people who smoke cannabis never progress to using other drugs, but there are some who do. Research shows that the  vast majority of high school students who do use other drugs used cannabis first. Why Do Some People Who Try Cannabis Also Try Other Drugs? The National Institute for Drug Abuse has three theories why some people who use marijuana go on to use other drugs while some do not: When people begin using cannabis while their young brains are still developing, which can be into their early 20s, it can change the reward system of their brains.?? Other drugs may, in turn, become more appealing.Those who use cannabis are more likely to be around others who use and sell other drugs, increasing the temptation to try those drugs.Young people who are at high risk of becoming substance abusers may use cannabis first because it is easier to get than other drugs.?? The same is true for cigarettes and alcohol. Can Someone Really Become Addicted to Marijuana? Is Cannabis a Gateway Drug? This question has circulated around the scientific community for many years. Of the usual gateway drugs, cannabis is mentioned along with the other two major ones, alcohol and tobacco. A three-year study published in 2016 focused on people who began using cannabis before alcohol.?? Researchers found that those who used cannabis experienced a higher incidence of an alcohol use disorder three years later after controlling for variables like psychiatric disorders and other substance use. Similarly, a 2015 study analyzed lifetime cannabis users and concluded that nearly 50% of participants went on to take other illicit drugs.?? Is Weed Really a Gateway Drug? Has Cannabis Become a Problem? For some, smoking cannabis is an occasional habit. For others, it can become a daily ritual that drags a person down. There are ways to tell if someone is addicted to cannabis and if its adversely affecting their lives.

The Issue Of Gun Control - 844 Words

Gun Control These days there are many different controversial topics for example, one of these topics is the current situation gun control and whether it should be more or less strict about its rules. I believe that the United States government should increase the amount of gun laws to a federal level so that it would affect all of the states. By doing so it would make it more difficult to attain to guns and it can be kept out of the hands of the wrong people and the black market. By making it more difficult to attain a gun to a certain point people would not want to even purchase one and the more guns that are kept out of the hand of the wrong people and the black market the number of crime and gun related deaths will go down. When guns ended up in the wrong hands incidents like the Sandy Hook elementary school shooting (S. H. Shooting), the Colorado movie theater shooting (C. T. Shooting), and the Virginia Tech shooting happens (Shootings). If we are able to make the current gun control laws s tricter we could prevent future travesties like them from occurring. According to gunviolencearchive.org last year in 2014 a total of 51,411 gun violence related incidents occurred and of those 12,519 ended up in death and 22,865 remained injured (Archive). If the government can pass stricter gun control laws then these numbers will massively drop. An example of this hypothesis being true is in Japan, they have very strict gun laws and as a result the amount of gun related deaths isShow MoreRelatedGun Issue And Gun Control1401 Words   |  6 PagesUniversity, Gun Politics has been a course I have aspired to take. While many enroll in such a course looking for an escape from the â€Å"collegiate liberal echo chamber† or as an outlet for their conservative agendas, I saw the class as an â€Å"entrance to the dark side.† My views on guns prior to the class were, I would call, polarized yet uninformed. In most of my discussions, I would cite the Australian 1996 National Firearms Agreement as precedent for how American politicians should app roach the gun issueRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pagessomebody who wants to inflict harm on other people to get his or her hands on a gun.† (Simple Minded Gun Control). Gun control is a controversial issue worldwide. The reason why this has attracted so much attention is because not everyone is in favor of gun control and each side brings up excellent points about the issue. Research related to this issue strongly supports the claim that there SHOULD be more gun control laws. Three arguments that prove this position are (1) Incidents like Sandy HookRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1489 Words   |  6 Pagessplit on the issue of gun control. We have seen many violent shootings and innocent people dying because of gun violence. Some Americans believe we need strict gun laws to protect our children and ourselves from these horrific tragedies. Other Americans believes it is our rights as Americans to posses’ guns and we are entitled to that r ight in our constitution. There are also some Americans that are stuck in the middle and can see both sides but recent events have definitely caused this issue to be inRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1031 Words   |  5 Pagesintegrate them in a way that will trigger a new viewpoint on the subject. Gun control is something that should be enforced across the world in order to save lives. In the United States there is a ratio of 88.8 guns per one hundred persons (GunPolicy.org). Those numbers award us with the highest total per capita number in the world. With that amount of firepower there needs to be an efficient way to regulate who exactly can purchase a gun. Since 1791 when the second amendment was ratified there have beenRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1705 Words   |  7 Pagesaway without preface or reason. All someone needs to do is pull the trigger. In today’s world, guns are far too accessible to the people of society. We hear in the news, stories of mass shooting s, homicides, and suicides; most of which are caused by the activation of a gun. A hot-button issue, gun control is one of the most debated topics in American politics. Should we, or should we not, be able to own guns? Although it infringes on the Second Amendment that provides the right to bear arms, this amendmentRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control951 Words   |  4 PagesGun control has been a big topic for the past decade in the united states. These debates will rise and fall time in and time out after something horrific happens in the state. Anti-Gun supporters do not realize that it is extremely difficult to regulate something in the states that is a big portion of our economy.Would stricter gun laws change anything? So far statistically It has been proven otherwise one must consider how a citizen would defend themselves when they are faced with terror. How willRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control929 Words   |  4 PagesGun Control Getting arrested yesterday was not the highlight of my week. I was hungry; so I went to Wal-Mart get some charcoal, lighter fluid, and steak. I put the charcoal in the grill and the lighter fluid on the coals. I got a little lighter fluid on my arm, but I didn’t pay it much attention. I lit the match and threw it on the coals. I looked down and my sleeve was on fire. I was waving my arm in the air, trying to put it out. Then here they come the police pulled in and tackled me to theRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1552 Words   |  7 PagesThe issue of gun is always controversial. Firearm can be used as defending or an assaulting weapon. In United States, firearm increase the rate of homicide, suicide and gun violence, which can harm and murder people. Moreover, taking away people’s gun will not work effectively because the murder and criminal will find another ways to get guns. Also, the black market will appear for the people who cannot get guns from regulated market s. In addition, if regulated guns are banned, murderers may useRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1678 Words   |  7 PagesJanuary 2014 The 2nd Amendment Over the past few years, the issue of gun control has been widely discussed. You surely have heard the phrase, â€Å"Guns don’t kill people, people kill people† uttered and i wholeheartedly support this statement. It is important to treat guns responsibly so they do not end up in the wrong hands. I believe gun control violates our inalienable rights. Another piece of our liberty will surely be taken away if guns are banned, and socialism and totalitarianism will be rightRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1208 Words   |  5 PagesWill Christopherson Traverson English 2 1 March 2017 Gun Control The United States has 88.8 guns per 100 people, or about 270,000,000 guns, which is the highest total and per capita number across the globe. The current public gun control debate in the United States seems to be placed on standby until it is sparked up by a major mass shooting. There were at least 126 mass shootings between January 2000 and July 2014.(pro). Opponents of more gun laws accuse supporters of using a horrific event to further

Political Economy And Its Impact On The American Economy

Political economy is defined by how political policies and economic processes work together to influence society. It encompasses the notion that political systems influence economic systems and vice-versa. Similarly, in America today, it is apparent that the economy heavily effects the education system. Evidently, the American education system also impacts the American economy. There is a complex relationship involving interaction between educational policy and the political economy, which includes concepts such as: race, class, democracy, and economics. Educational policy is embedded in larger social, economic, and political contexts which make up the modern political economy. American universities were poised to welcome millions of young adults who headed off to institutions for higher learning this fall. It is engrained in today’s society that a college degree is imperative to students preparing to enter the American work force. However, despite earning a college degree â⠂¬Å"83 percent of college seniors graduated without a job this spring† (is your student prepared for life?). It is an alarming reality for college graduates, the fact that upon graduating, positions are often part time, low wage, or unrelated to their college degree or career interests. In his article, Is Your Student Prepared for Life? Ben Carpenter suggests that in order to be certain that college students are prepared for life post- graduation: â€Å"colleges need to create, and require for graduation, aShow MoreRelatedThe Impact Of United States On America927 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction For a long period, Americans have been trying to explore the benefits that have been since the individual States of America joined to form what currently known as United States of America. Although various ideas have been presented to support both sides of the story, I believe that the positive impacts that United States had on America outweigh the adverse effects. Political, cultural, social and technological advances that have witnessed in America over the centuries have contributedRead MoreWhat Factors During The Colonial Period Essay1636 Words   |  7 PagesESSAY QUESTION: What factors during the colonial period led to American colonists declaring independence from the British Empire? Be sure to discuss the economic, political, and cultural aspects of the American Revolution. PROVISIONAL HYPOTHESIS: The structure of America revolution to address a various issue, which has great impact on America It, was the procedure where the thirteen colonies of North America became independent of Great Britain also then formed a new integrated government. The majorRead MoreChin An Entrepreneur Economy With Tyrant Government1591 Words   |  7 Pagesdoesn t exist common freedoms, worker s organizations, and focuses of political force outside to comrade party. At the point when comes to financial matters among the world s countries there is no more in the middle of socialism and free enterprise. It s political. China is an entrepreneur economy with tyrant government. For a long time, suspicion made that free enterprise and majority rules system goes as one. The American arrangement towards China had key components to empower unhindered commerceRead MoreEssay on Political Science1406 Words   |  6 Pages1) Which of the following constitutes an element of the United States’ national political culture? The rights and liberties citizens have 2) No political belief has been more widely held across social groups and generations in the United States than ________. individual liberty 3) The Declaration of Independence asserts the primacy of the principle of ________, that â€Å"all men are created equal.† equality 4) The fastest growing ethnic group in the United StatesRead MoreChapter 2 Test Political Science Pearson Essay987 Words   |  4 Pages1) The strength of the economy is directly tied to the monetary value of all goods and services produced in a nation each year, which is called the ________. Gina coefficients for the economy Median household income Gross domestic product Poverty line Mass production factor 2) The degree of ________in the United States is unusually high compared to other developed countries. 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It has the largest and strongest economy in the world, because United States has GDP per capita $49,800 (The World Factbook). The USA is an engine of world economy, the reason of changing and permutation of economic situation. The United States of America very strongly influences world economy. Many international and world transactions pass in US dollarRead MoreThe Effects Of Immigrants On The Economy908 Words   |  4 PagesFrom terrorism, to global warming, to immigration, hot-button political issues often affect many parts of people’s lives. When looking at the many issues facing the country, there are a rare few that only affect one aspect of life. Instead the problems in the country have diverse and extensive impacts and therefore need all-encompassing solutions. One of the issues that garners a great deal of discussion is immigration and its impacts on the economic environment. 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Loreily Criquit 1/23/2017 â€Æ' For decades the institutions of the Washington Consensus (WC); International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB), have dominated the international political economy. Under the

For My Health Care Interview Paper Free Essays

She works with me at Trihedral in Cincinnati, OH, as an Insurance Coordinator. Also, she is a University of Phoenix graduate class of 2012. I work very close with Tomcat Goodwin in the Insurance Verification department, as an Outpatient Surgery Financial Counselor Rep II. We will write a custom essay sample on For My Health Care Interview Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now In my paper will discuss my interview I had with her. During the interview, she described her primary responsibility, her career path and did her college education prepare for her current job. She will discuss her length of employment at Trihedral , and identify the customer she assist. She gave me information for education requirements to become an Insurance Coordinator, and grow in the health care field. Lastly, she explained how she interacts with others in their environment. To become a Health care Insurance Coordinator formal education along with well versed knowledge on various health insurance policies. Tomcat G (2014) suggests that an individual needs to be current on different health care policy, so they can coordinate the patient’s benefits. The Insurance Coordinator has several responsibilities for assisting patients, health insurance companies, and various departments within the company. Tomcat G. (2014) says, â€Å"As an Insurance Coordinator you will be responsible for assisting patients in dealing with the health insurance claims. It’s your job to contact insurance companies and patients regarding outstanding balances. The person must be initiative to resolve and research billing issues. † Tomcat daily routine consists of preparing administrative and functional reports for our manager. She prepares invoices on behalf of the department manager. Finally, job duties include receiving incoming calls, and making outbound calls to other divisions. She has to have good communication skills. Growing up Tomcat always had a passion of helping others. As a little girl she planned to be a fire fighter, but she got older she found a passion for the healthcare field. When her grandmother become ill and she discovered the lack of health care coverage her grandmother had. During her grandmother illness, Tomcat came across a few people and seeing the passion they had in their eyes to help others. Tomcat wanted that same feeling, while working with the community. After her grandmother passed away, she decided to go o school and study healthcare. Tomcat wasn’t interested in being a physicians or nurse; she wanted a road less traveled. She knew she wanted to do something in healthcare, but what she didn’t know. After, several conversations with her Academic advisor, Tomcat knew she was making the best decision of life. Tomcat gradated from the University Of Phoenix 2012, with BBS in Healthcare Admit Management. She is currently working on her MBA at the University of Phoenix. Her long term goal is to be the director of Oral Surgery. Tomcat G feels that University of Phoenix prepared for the lath care industry. Her education prepared different promotions at Trihedral. Tomcat encouraged me to return back to school, and complete my degree. Tomcat has worked at Trihedral for 8 years and within these years she has been promoted 4 times to higher levels in the company. The department she works in goes beyond the job requirement. We help family members manage emotional and financial challenges of caring for their family members or loved ones. To be in this department the employee must have sympathy and compassion towards the customer. The employee customer will change day o day based on the employee is working. At times my customer may be the health insurance company; am calling them to verify coverage and co payments for the patient. A few calls later my customer maybe the claims department, and other various departments. Tomcat feels that working in health care you were different hats to get the job done correctly. Tomcat thrives on being a leader in patient satisfaction through excellence and quality care to any customer. Trihedral is physicians, hospitals, and communities working together to help people live better. Trihedral is located in Cincinnati, OH. How to cite For My Health Care Interview Paper, Papers

Lance Armstrong Case Study Essay Example

Lance Armstrong Case Study Essay There are a plethora of different Issues that have surfaced since the retirement of Lance Armstrong. Although Lance was looked at as one of the most influential and decorated athletes of all-time, things have changed since evidence has been brought up that prove Lance Armstrong is guilty of doping. Many athletes have been found guilty of doping and things alike, but, Lance Armstrong, a cancer survivor was looked to as a role model to many different types of people such as: children, teenagers, athletes, adults, cancer survivors, basically any person who knows who he is. Since these allegations arose back in 2010, he has lost many followers and offended many other cancer survivors, with what the world looks at as cheating. Lance Armstrong Is the spokesperson for his own organization, the Lance Armstrong Foundation (ALFA). The ALFA Is known for their bracelets which over 65 million of these were sold, making his organization very well known and well respected. When Armstrong came out of retirement and returned to professional cycling In 2009, the ALFA revenues increased from $32. 6 million in 2008 to $41. 7 million in 2009 (Maybe Its About the Bike, peg. 2). Also, the Sports Illustrated writer Selene Roberts reported four massive accusations about Armstrong, all of which are plenty enough reason to force the public to look at Armstrong as a disgrace and a cheater. We will write a custom essay sample on Lance Armstrong Case Study specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Lance Armstrong Case Study specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Lance Armstrong Case Study specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer She even referenced the similarities between his and Roger Clemens doping scandals. For a personal perspective, Lance Armstrong has always been considered a hero. He was a man who did not let cancer deny him from getting back on his bike and winning any biking titles. Unfortunately for Mr.. Armstrong, he ruined his image and will probably never be able to regain such a strong relationship with his admirers ever again. There Is no reason why Lance should have allowed himself to compete knowing he was galling an unfair advantage. What Is even more unjust about the situation is the fact that after 60 Minutes aired an interview with his former teammate, Tyler Hamilton. Hamilton, one of Armstrongs former USPS teammates, publicly stated that he had first-hand knowledge that Armstrong had doped in the dead-up to at least three of his Tour De France victories (Maybe Its About the Bike, peg. 2). Its almost disturbing that even after such a valuable source threw Lance under the bus he could still proclaim his innocence. There is no soft spot for anyone who allows themselves to rob hundreds of athletes for what they have also worked day and night for. Most of which, worked hard and kept the illegal substances out of their bodies. It Is my belief that Lance Armstrong was rightfully stripped of his titles, and should never be allowed to compete again. Many supporters might argue that he ad cancer and deserved create a more even playing field for himself. This Is not the case, If Lance Armstrong, one of the greatest athletes of all time, wanted to be remembered forever he should have thought about the consequences before he cantata. For Torture policy, all professional sports are on ten relent track, all tentacles need to be tested, no matter whom they are; nobody should have anything to hide. Sports are a lot more spectacular knowing that all the athletes are 100% natural, and have made it to where they are because of hard work; not a needle.

Liquidity - Dictionary Definition of Liquidity

Liquidity - Dictionary Definition of Liquidity Liquidity refers to how quickly and cheaply an asset can be converted into cash. Money (in the form of cash) is the most liquid asset. Assets that generally can only be sold after a long exhaustive search for a buyer are known as illiquid. Terms related to Liquidity: Liquidity TrapLiquidity ConstraintThe Keynes Effect Resources on Liquidity: What Happens if Interest Rates Go To Zero?What is Money? Writing a Term Paper or High School / College Essay? Here are a few starting points for research on Liquidity: Books on Liquidity Financial crises, liquidity, and the international monetary system - Jean Tirole, Princeton, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002.Cash flow forecasting and liquidity - Brian Coyle, Chicago, Ill. : New York: Glenlake Pub. Co., 2000.Managing corporate liquidity - Chicago: New York: Glenlake Pub., 1999 (2nd edition). Journal Articles on Liquidity Order Imbalance, Liquidity, and Market Returns - Tarun Chordia, Journal of Financial Economics v65, n1 (July 2002): 111-30.Domestic and International Supply of Liquidity - Bengt Holstrom, American Economic Review v92, n2 (May 2002): 42-45.Bank Bailouts and Aggregate Liquidity - Douglas W. Diamond, American Economic Review v92, n2 (May 2002): 38-41.A Dual Liquidity Model for Emerging Markets - Ricardo J. Caballero, American Economic Review v92, n2 (May 2002): 33-37.Liquidity Risk and Specialness - Andrea Buraschi, Journal of Financial Economics v64, n2 (May 2002): 243-84.

Why We are Shy Writers…and Natural At It

Why We are Shy Writers†¦and Natural At It I swear†¦emails from readers are the best catalysts for editorials and lessons. They make me think, and they give me ideas for stories, for solutions, for hints on how to help other writers. It’s been a while since I’ve talked SHY WRITER. As many of you know, I wrote THE SHY WRITER REBORN because I have an earnest longing to help writers afraid to publish, speak or self-promote. It’s hard. I hate it, too. It goes against my grain. If I could stay locked up in my study writing, and let someone else sell my work, I would. Most of us would. So I wrote THE SHY WRITER REBORN to share the hints, lessons and tricks I’ve collected over the years that help me step away from my desk and be an entrepreneur. I’m much better than I used to be, but still, there are many moments when I want to turn down an opportunity, walk away from people, and crawl into my own head to live out my life†¦and tell my stories. But last week I received this memo: â€Å"I need a push. Confidence in business and teaching has been my strength for so many years. Why am I a shy writer?† This woman could’ve been me . . . WAS me. As a federal director for years, I held a reputation for being pretty strong and diligent in maintaining the direction of any mission assigned to me. Many relied upon me. Some of my peers found me intimidating. To tell you a secret, part of that intimidation was the fact I would write better than anyone I met within the agency, and trust me, writing well makes everyone who can’t write think you’re part genius. But I recall the first time I had to read my fiction aloud, at a critique group. After 25 years of management, I sat in a room at the local library, holding only ten people, and literally shook as I read Chapter One of Lowcountry Bribe. Five years later, when Lowcountry Bribe had a contract, when I should’ve felt validated, I stood at a writers conference to read my fiction again, and shook. That evening, I pondered what the deal was. How could I be so strong one minute and fearful the next? Then it hit me. In business and teaching, we are symbolic of an organization, a school, a subject. We are something else. However, as writers, we are putting ourselves out there. What we say is only ours, from our words, our personal thoughts. That’s hitting too close to home. If we can put ourselves in the â€Å"role† of author, maybe that same strength we use for business and teaching would come forth. And I’ve been using that logic ever since.

Marketing research Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Marketing research - Case Study Example However, Alok (2009) is convinced that female shoppers are more likely to remain loyal to shops they have signed loyalty programs with. Nazia (2011) delved into the effect of income levels on shopping habits, supporting notions spread by Peter, Borle and Kadane (2003) that shoppers with higher income tend to be loyal to more shops than those with lower income. Yuping, Williams and Tam (2010) refuted this claim, noting that every individual signs up with a program based on how much they need the products offered by a store. Older buyers are shown in Rose (2013) as being less likely to make large purchases, due to their partial inability to earn at the same pace as the energetic younger cohorts. Seyhmus (2002), however, had a differing opinion, preceding Rose’s article with the assertion that age does not actually affect ability to shop (size of purchase) since there are many wealthy older persons. Based on these contradicting notes, this research poses the questions: The current research is based on a model depicting the consumer as more being more loyal based on their membership to loyalty programs. Therefore, the response (percentage of clothing budget spent at the store’s clothing category and amount of money spent at the store) are affected by the age, income, gender and membership to loyalty for the participants. The hypotheses developed in response to the research questions are: H4: There is no significant difference between amount spent at the clothing category and percentage of clothing budget spent on clothing at the store for participants signed to the loyalty program and those not signed. The sample comprised 202 participants who were all shoppers at the selected clothing store. 122(60.4%) were male while 80 (39.6%) were female shoppers. There were no shoppers below the age of 18 years. However, 184 (91.1%) were adults aged between 19 and 50 years while 18 (8.9%) were older persons aged above

Critically appraise the relevance of general principles of EU Law, Essay

Critically appraise the relevance of general principles of EU Law, such as the principles of proportionality or non-discriminati - Essay Example Defining General Principles The general principle of law is identified as a overall proposition of law of some prominence from which concrete rubrics are derived. The term ‘general’ in overall principles of law discusses, first, the fact that the particular standard of law is inherent in a sequence of unlimited applications of the law1. Accordingly, it is this particular characteristic that is the inconclusiveness in respect to the quality and capacity of the cases upon which the respective principle can be applied, which differentiates a general principle of law from an ordinary principle of law. Contrastingly, the general principle of law bears a more general nature, and is applicable to a wider range of different legal proceedings2. Second, the term ‘general’ also denotes the fact that the corresponding principle of law should be perceived as containing some universal mission. In other words, what characterises a general or universal principle of law in t he framework of EU law is the notion that the respective principle of law is also existent in other national or legal international systems. For instance, when the ECJ3 identifies the proportionality principle as a general principle of law, it supposes that the proportionality principle is also fundamental in other legal systems of law and, it respectfully surpasses the fateful obstacles established between them. Case in point, the ECJ has derived backing for its proposal that proportionality is a general principle of law with specific reference to select EC Member States’ legal systems. Accordingly, the proportionality principle is thereby also existent in the German constitutional and administrative law and French administrative law. General principles of law can be expressly specified such as in constitutional texts or deduced by a procedure of interpretation with regard to legislative texts, the existing legislative objectives, or the fundamental values of the legal syste m. Accordingly, in areas where general principles of law are referred to as sources of law in domestic or international legal systems, such reference usually indicates the principles derived by those courts from explicit rule or the entire legal systems and which exist further than that written law4. In essence, principles offer justification for existing rules. According to Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, a ‘principle’ of law, is defined to be a rule inherent in the implication of a rule-of-law, which epitomises an ideal of reason and/or of justice, and which is thought to constitute the foundation of the actual institution of law5. Indeed, the principle provides an answer to the question â€Å"why† as compared to the rule which only answers the question of â€Å"what†. Further, a principle of law is different from procedural rules since it is more explicitly defined in the facts of a court’s decision6. Notably, according to Dworkin, the overtness of the p rinciple of law indicates that it is formed as a part of the thought process of a court decision, also referred as the ratio decidendi. Consequently, principles are public, which also implies that they can establish the basis of expectations regarding the manner in which a court will resolve identical cases in future. Indeed, the precedent

Hydrological Impacts of Wimbleball Reservoir

Hydrological Impacts of Wimbleball Reservoir An Evaluation of the hydrological impacts of Wimbleball Reservoir using the IHA approach A river acts both as a source and carrier of water for supporting and sustaining the biological diversity and integrity of the aquatic, wetland and riparian species and natural ecosystems. To accomplish these functions, it is necessary that river water meets some essential qualitative and quantitative parameters and the stream-flow exhibits the dynamics and hydrological attributes comparable to that of natural or unaltered river flows (hydrologic regime). This hydrologic regime is the lifeline of freshwater ecosystem and all diverse variety of aquatic riparian species are for long accustomed and adapted to the characteristic temporal, spatial and hydrologic variation of water flow cycles attributable to the natural or unaltered water flow. Unfortunately, this regime and its naturally configured variation patterns get disturbed failing to absorb the stresses induced by our ever-increasing demands and environmentally irresponsive use of water. To evaluate the shifts in the pre and post-reservoir hydrologic parameters, the effect of Wimbleball Reservoir have been analysed based on the long-term flow-patterns of the downstream discharge of the reservoir. The analysis was conducted by a very robust statistical model called the IHA model. Both long term differences and RVA analysis show substantial impacts of manmade reservoir control on the biota of the Exe-catchment. Introduction Water bodies like rivers, streams, channels, etc. serve a dual function being essential source points for our day-to-day water requirements as well being its transporters or carriers by flowing in and channelling water downstream to the river beds, catchments and agricultural fields in the process supporting and sustaining the biological diversity and integrity of the aquatic, wetland and riparian species and natural ecosystems. Our earth is also called the ‘water planet’ as water forms approximately 70% of its total surface (The Ground Water Foundation,2003) but only a part of it is available for our use. This realization has long back prompted us to take up some water management practices. In the beginning, water management practices were very much focused on issues like water quality and flood control measures and the overall strategy was never so broad to include other aspects like water quantity, stream flow management and restoration (BD, Richter, etal,1997)2. However, issues pertaining to water quantity, flow, restoration, etc. gradually started to get prominence in our policy framework following a landmark order passed by the US Supreme Court identifying the separation of water quality from water quantity and flow as an artificial distinction and recommending incorporation of both water quality and quantity objectives in a broader and comprehensive water management policy framework (US-EPA, 2002)3. Water quality, quantity flow conditions are in way inseparable features considering the fact that the amount of flow in a river effects many issues of water quality and water quantity at the same time. Therefore, the assessment on the wholesomeness of water in any system is essentially dictated by the above conditions of quality, quantity and flow characteristics. Going by this approach broadens the overall water policy framework making this a comprehensive management initiative. This shift in water management approach necessitated re-configuration of the erstwhile single or limited objective driven practice of flood storm water control thereby embracing a comprehensive initiative of total ecosystem management restoration having multi-utility potentials. This system is very important and effective because this takes into account the sustainable use of water resources or ‘water takings’ and their possible restoration (Dept. of Fisheries Oceans, Canada, 2002)4. Under the ambit of this, it is necessary that river water meets some essential qualitative and quantitative parameters and the stream-flow exhibits the dynamics and hydrological attributes (hydrologic regime) comparable to that of natural or unaltered river flow (Richter D. Brian etal) 5. This hydrologic regime or ‘natural flow regime’ is the lifeline of freshwater ecosystem and all diverse variety of aquatic riparian species are for long accustomed and adapted to the characteristic temporal, spatial and hydrologic variations of water flow cycles attributable to the natural or unaltered water flow. Unfortunately, this regime and its naturally configured variation patterns get disturbed (Allan David HinzLeon, SNRE, 2004)6 failing to absorb the stresses induced by our ever-increasing water takings demands and environmentally irresponsive use of water. In fact, this is the point where human intervention or controls and water integrity issues found themselves in a highly confronting and conflicting platform. Increased water demands compelling human actions like construction of water reservoirs, dams, impoundments, etc. for storing and using water for domestic, energy and hydropower, artificial parks and various other uses have started taking their toll on river waters and water bodies substantially degrading the quality, quantity and importantly squeezing the downstream water flows(Benue, A. C. 1990). This flow reduction in rivers consequential to manmade flood and irrigation control practices like reservoirs and dams are found to alter the natural hydrologic regime bringing in a series of impairments to overall ecosystem and also opening up a new front in the field of river and hydrology studies. This paper aims to assess the variations in the hydrological parameters of a river system specifically attributable to impacts of man-made interventions or controls like reservoirs. Primarily, the research ambition is to identify and evaluate the degree of alterations in the hydrologic profile by analysing the long-term historical as well recent water flow records representative of the pre-impact and post-impact period of construction and commissioning of a typical reservoir. An emerging computer tool called the ‘IHA’ (Indicators of Hydrologic Alterations) has been applied to generate scenarios and analyze the data. The records and data needs for this study have been sourced from an existing gauging station in the Exe river of South-West England strategically selected to represent the influence of the ‘Wimbleball Reservoir’. Natural Flow Regime Hydrologic Alterations – Ecological Significance The concept of natural flow regime is based on the understanding that aquatic and riparian organisms depend upon, or can tolerate arrange of flow conditions specific to each species (Puff etal, 1997)7.For example, certain fish species moves into safer floodplain areas during floods to feed and escape from attacks of other species occupying the main water body thereby adapting a mechanism to survive and carry on all by itself. This in a way indicates that if flooding occurs at the right time of the year, and lasts for the right amount of time, these fish populations will benefit from the flood event finally. Again as a contrast to this case, other species may be adversely affected by the same flood. With the development of the science of hydrology, it has been confirmed with a good degree of confidence that hydrologic regime with all its natural and temporal variations (both intra-annual and inter-annual) are needed to maintain and restore the natural form and function of aquatic ecosystems. However, this prerequisite is not in line with the traditional water management practice which is functionally attuned to influence and dampen natural fluctuations with the objective to provide steady and undisturbed supply of water for different in-stream and out-of-stream activities(Richter et al., 2003) . Moreover, for intervening and containing extreme drought and flood events, the traditional water management initiatives rather relied on moderating and limiting flow fluctuations. Many studies indicate ‘natural flow regime’ as a determinant toing-stream flow needs of a water body. For example, (Richter et al,1996) and (Puff et al. 1997) generalized that natural flow conditions may indicate and determine in-stream flow requirements. There exists a correlation between stream-flow and other physicochemical characteristics critical to ecological integrity of streams and rivers(Puff etal., 1997). Precisely, flow can be associated to some direct as well indirect or secondary impacts and as such flow characteristics can be used as surrogates for other in-stream indicators and ecosystem conditions and importantly the components of a flow regime as shown infigure-1, are very much accessible to scientific inquiry (IFC, 2002,Poff et al. 1997, Richter et al., 1996) . Any disruption, fragmentation and dilution of this natural regime of water-flow leads to ‘Hydrological alteration’ and in general, this can be defined as any anthropogenic disruption in the magnitude or timing of natural river flows (Biosciences, 50-9, 2000). The natural flow regime of a river is dependent on various factors including rainfall, temperature and evaporation when considered in a broader geographic scale or macro-scale and is also influenced by the physical characteristics of a catchment at the catchment level or micro-scale(Rash et al, 1988) . As mentioned earlier, river flow regimes are also affected directly and indirectly by human activities. Such human interventions disrupting natural flow of a river through construction and operation of reservoirs and dams have the potential of triggering a series of undesirable consequences like extensive ecological degradation, loss of biological diversity, water quality deterioration, groundwater depletion, and also more frequent and intense flooding(Puff et al, 1997). Reservoir are built to store water to compensate for fluctuations in river flow, thereby providing a measure of human control of water resources, or to raise the level of water upstream to either increase hydraulic head or enable diversion of water into canal. The creation of storage and head allows reservoirs to generate electricity, to supply water for agriculture, industries, and municipalities, to mitigate flooding and to assist river navigation(Rash et al. 1988). The biological effects of hydrologic alterations are often difficult to disentangle from those of other environmental perturbations in heavily developed catchments as identified by Rosenberg et al. (Environmental Reviews 5: 27–54, 1997) . The impacts of large-scale hydrological alteration include habitat fragmentation within rivers (Dynes us and Nilsson 1994) , downstream habitat changes, such as loss of floodplains, riparian zones, and adjacent wetlands and deterioration and loss of river deltas and ocean estuaries (Rosenberg et al. 1997)36,deterioration of irrigated terrestrial environments and associated surface waters (McCall 1996) . Hydrological alterations also bring another indirect or secondary impacts on the genetic, ecosystem and global levels. They can cause genetic isolation through habitat fragmentation (Pringle 1997) , changes in processes such as nutrient cycling and primary productivity (Pringle 1997, Rosenberg et al. 1997),etc. With the realization of the importance of natural flow regime and the possible dangers posed by human alterations, there emerged a relatively new and promising water and ecology management paradigm. Many researchers started seeing this as a very comprehensive and sound management option and on many occasions stressed regarding the urgency of protecting or restoring natural hydrologic regimes (Sparks 1992;National Research Council, Doppler et al. 1993; and Dynes us Nilsson 1994) . Effective ecosystem management of aquatic, riparian, and wetland system requires that existing hydrologic regimes be characterized using biologically-relevant hydrologic parameters, and that the degree to which human-altered regimes differ from natural or preferred conditions be related to the status and trends of the biota(BD, Richter, etal, 1997). Ecosystem management efforts should be considered experiments, testing the need to maintain or restore natural hydrologic regime characteristics in order to sustain ecosystem integrity. Only some limited studies have closely examined hydrologic influences on ecosystem integrity and this is mainly because most of the commonly used statistical tools are poorly suited for characterizing hydrologic data into biologically relevant attributes(BD, Richter, etal, 1997). Without such knowledge, ecosystem managers will not be compelled to protect or restore natural hydrologic regime characteristics. However, recently, there have been some significant developments in the field of hydrological studies and importantly few robust computer statistical tools and models like IHA Range of Variability Approach (RVA) using the (Indicators of Hydrologic Alterations, BD, Richter, etal, 1997), Wetted Physical Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM Model, Jowett, 1997)35, Flow Incremental Methodology (FIM), other Hydrologic Modelling Software like GAWSER, Ontario Flow Assessment Techniques (OFAT), etc. are now known to exist(Jowett, 1997). The following sections attempt to evaluate and assess the possible effects of hydrological alteration specifically induced by human interventions or activities. A very useful computer model called the model (available at Freshwaters.com) has been used for generating and evaluating the effects of flow variations. The ecological zone considered for analysis in this paper is the ‘Exe river Estuary’ region and the gauging station selected is 45001 Exe at Thorverton. The Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) Method – Approaches Application The evaluation and assessment of the flow regime of the Exe-river system and the variations it witnessed after the construction of the ‘Wimbleball Reservoir’ have been accomplished by the application of Avery detailed computer-modelling tool known as the IHA or ‘Indicators of Hydrologic Assessment’ model. The software basically takes birth from the concept of integrity and wholesomeness of the ‘natural flow regime ‘and is configured and capable of determining the relative transformations and variations in this natural flow regime subject to any natural or artificial modifications or alterations (BD, Richter, etal, 1997). At first, it requires defining and identifying a series of biologically-relevant hydrologic attributes that characterize intra anointer-annual variations in water conditions which are further processed for a robust statistical variation analysis after isolating the data-sets to represent two different periods resembling the pre-impact and post-impact scenarios (Rosenberg, et al, 2002). The Nature Conservancy is now the custodian of this statistical tool, which is very useful for assessing the degree to which human activities have changed flow regimes (US-EPA, 2002). Brian D. Richter and et al. from the Nature Conservancy (Richter D. Brian, etal, 1996-97) have identified four basic for this analysis and they are: (I) Define the data series (e.g., stream-gauge or well records) for pre- and post-impact periods in the ecosystem of interest. (ii) Calculate values of hydrologic attributes Values for each of 32ecologically-relevant hydrologic attributes are calculated for each year in each data series, i.e., one set of values for the pre-impact data series and one for the post-impact data series. (iii) Compute inter-annual statistics Compute measures of central tendency and dispersion for the 32 attributes in each data series, based on the values calculated in step 2. This produces a total of 64 inter-annual statistics for each data series (32 measures of central tendency and 32 measures of dispersion). (iv) Calculate values of the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration -Compare the 64 inter-annual statistics between the pre- and post-impact data series, and present each result as a percentage deviation of onetime period (the post-impact condition) relative to the other (there-impact condition). The method equally can be used to compare the state of one system to itself over time (e.g., pre- versus post-impacts just described); or it can be used to compare the state of one system to another (e.g., an altered system to a reference system), or to compare current conditions to simulated results based on models of future modification to a system. The same computational strategies will work with any regular-interval hydrologic data, such as monthly means; however, the sensitivity of the IHA method for detecting hydrologic alteration is increasingly compromised with time intervals longer than a day (Richter. Brian, etal, 1996-97). Detection of certain types of hydrologic impacts, such as the rapid flow fluctuations associated with hydropower generation at dams, may require even shorter (hourly) interval. They have also suggested that ‘the basic data for estimating all attribute values may preferably be daily mean water conditions (levels, heads, flow rates). Hydrologic conditions in general can vary in four dimensions within an ecosystem (three spatial dimensions and time).However, the three spatial domains can be scaled down to one with the assumption that only one spatial domain exists at any strategic location over time in a river system. Restricting the domain to one specific point within a hydrologic system (like any measuring point in river) makes it simple for us to identify specific water conditions with one spatial and one temporal domain. These events may be specific water conditions like heads, levels, rate of change, etc. (Richter Brian, etal, 1996) whose temporal variations can be recorded and assessed from that particular spatial point or from a single position. Such temporal changes in water conditions are commonly portrayed as plots of water condition against time, or hydrographs. Here, we seek to study and analyse the variations in hydrologic conditions using indicators and attributes, which should essentially be biologically relevant as well as responsive to human influences or modifications like reservoir and dam operations, ground water pumping, agricultural activities, etc. at the same time (Richter D. Brian, etal,1996,). Importantly, a variety of features or parameters of hydrologic regime can be used and functionally superimposed (Sense South wood 1977, 1988; Puff Ward 1990}40 to virtually represent and finally characterize the physical habitat templates (Townsend Hilde, 1994)43 or environmental filters (Sense Eddy 1992)42that shape the biotic composition of aquatic, wetland, and riparian ecosystems. The IHA method is based on 32 biologically relevant hydrologic attributes, which are divided into five major groups to statistically characterize intra-annual hydrologic variation as showman Table-1. These 32 attributes are based upon the following five fundamental characteristics of hydrologic regimes: 1. the magnitude of the water condition at any given time is measure of the availability or suitability of habitat, and defines such habitat attributes as wetted area or habitat volume, or the position of water table relative to wetland or riparian plant rooting zones; 2. the timing of occurrence of particular water conditions can determine whether certain life cycle requirements are met, or influence the degree of stress or mortality associated with extreme water conditions such as floods or droughts; 3. the frequency of occurrence of specific water conditions such as droughts or floods may be tied to reproduction or mortality events for various species, thereby influencing population dynamics; 4. the duration of time over which a specific water condition exists may determine whether a particular life cycle phase can be completed, or the degree to which stressful effects such as inundation or desiccation can accumulate; 5. the rate of change in water conditions may be tied to the stranding of certain organisms along the waters edge or in pounded depressions, or the ability of plant roots to maintain contact with phreatic water supplies. A detailed representation of the hydrologic regime can be obtained from these 32 parameters for the purpose of assessing hydrologic alteration. Importantly, all the parameters having good ecological relevance do not call for any parameter specific statistical analysis and all of them can be processed by single and unique approach like they (Kozlowski 1984; Bustard 1984; Puff Ward 1989)46. Also, because certain stream-flow levels shape physical habitat conditions within river channels, it is needed to identify some hydrologic characteristics that might aid in detection of physical habitat alterations. (Richter D. Brian, etal, 1997). Sixteen of the hydrologic parameters focus on the magnitude, duration, timing, and frequency of extreme events, because of the pervasive influence of extreme forces in ecosystems (Gaines Denny 1994)48 and geomorphology (Leopold1994)49 and other 16 parameters measure the central tendency of either the magnitude or rate of change of water conditions (Table-2). The rationale underlying the five major groupings and the specific parameters included within each are described below. Table-2: Summary of various Hydrological Groups Groups Descriptions Number of total Hydrologic Parameters 1 Magnitude of monthly water conditions 12 2 Magnitude duration of annual extremes 10 3 Timing of annual extremes 02 4 Frequency duration of high low pulses 04 5 Rate frequency of change in conditions 04 Group-1: Magnitude of Monthly Water Conditions This group includes 12 parameters, each of which measures the central tendency (mean) of the daily water conditions for a given month. The monthly mean of the daily water conditions describes â€Å"normal daily conditions for the month, and thus provides a general measure of habitat availability or suitability. The similarity of monthly means within a year reflects conditions of relative hydrologic constancy, whereas inter-annual variation (e.g., coefficient of variation) in the mean water condition of a given Month provides an expression of environmental contingency (Colwell 1974; Puff Ward1989). The terms constancy and contingency as used here refer tithe degree to which monthly means vary from month to month (constancy),and the extent to which flows vary within any given month(contingency). Group-2: Magnitude and Duration of Annual Extreme Water Conditions The 10 parameters in this group measure the magnitude of extreme(minimum and maximum) annual water conditions of various duration, ranging from daily to seasonal. The durations that we use follow natural or human-imposed cycles, and include the 1-day, 3-day, 7-day(weekly), 30-day (monthly), and 90-day (seasonal) extremes. For any given year, the 1-day maximum (or minimum) is represented by the highest (or lowest) single daily value occurring during the year; thematic-day maximum (or minimum) is represented by the highest (or lowest) multi-day average value occurring during the year. The mean magnitudes of high and low water extremes of various duration provide measures of environmental stress and disturbance during the year; conversely, such extremes may be necessary precursors or triggers for reproduction of certain species. The inter-annual variation (e.g. Coefficient of variation) in the magnitudes of these extremes provides another expression of contingency. Group-3: Timing of Annual Extreme Water Conditions This group includes 02 parameters one measuring the Julian date of the 1-day annual minimum water condition, and the other measuring the Julian date of the 1-day maximum water condition. The timing of the highest and lowest water conditions within annual cycles provides another measure of environmental disturbance or stress by describing the seasonal nature of these stresses. Key life cycle phases (e.g. Reproduction) may be intimately linked to the timing of annual extremes, and thus human induced changes in timing may cause reproductive failure, stress, or mortality. The inter-annual variation in timing of extreme events reflects environmental contingency. Group-4: Frequency and Duration of High and Low Pulses This group has 04 parameters include two, which measure the number of annual occurrences during which the magnitude of the water condition exceeds an upper threshold or remains below a lower threshold, respectively, and two, which measure the mean duration of such high and low pulses. These measures of frequency and duration of high- and low-water conditions together portray the pulsing behaviour of environmental variation within a year, and provide measures of the shape of these environmental pulses. Hydrologic pulses are defined here as those periods within a year in which the daily mean water condition either rises above the 75th percentile (high pulse) or drops below the25th percentile (low pulse) of all daily values for the pre-impact time period. Group-5: Rate and Frequency of Change in Water Conditions The four parameters included in this group measure the number and mean rate of both positive and negative changes in water conditions from one day to the next. The Rates and frequency of change in water conditions can be described in terms of the abruptness and number of intra-annual cycles of environmental variation, and provide a measure of the rate and frequency of intra-annual environmental change. Assessing Hydrologic Alteration In assessing the impact of a perturbation on the hydrologic regime, we want to determine whether the state of the perturbed system differs significantly from what it would have been in the absence of the perturbation. In particular, we want to test whether the central tendency or degree of inter-annual variation of an attribute of interest has been altered by the perturbation (Stewart-Oaten et al.1986)55. The assessment of impacts to natural systems often poses difficult statistical problems, however, because the perturbation of interest cannot be replicated or randomly assigned to experimental units (Carpenter 1989; Carpenter et al. 1989; Hulbert 1984;Stewart-Oaten et al. 1986)66. The lack of replication does not hinder estimation of the magnitude of an effect, but limits inferences regarding its causes. However, the IHA method is robust and can be easily adapted to more sophisticated experimental designs. A standard statistical comparison of the 32 IHA parameters between two data series would include tests of the null hypothesis that the central tendency or dispersion of each has not changed. However, this null hypothesis is generally far less interesting in impact assessments than questions about the sizes of detectable changes and their potential biological importance. A standardized process for assessing hydrologic impacts is included within the IHA software. The Range of Variability Method (RVA) is another analysis frame in which to assess change in structured manner. This method of determining hydrologic alteration is based on the theory that there is natural variability in stream-flow. The RVA software would plot and determine whether an activity, such as water taking, would alter the stream-low outside this normal variability. Significant alteration would occur if the stream-low regime were altered more than one standard deviation from the natural variability, which may have ecological consequences. Development of Pre- and Post-Impact scenarios When adequate hydrologic records are available for both there-impact and post-impact time periods, application of the IHA method will be relatively straightforward using the statistical procedures described above. When pre- or post-impact records are nonexistent,include data gaps, or are inadequate in length, however, various datareconstruction or estimation procedures will need to be employed. Examples of such procedures include the hydrologic record extension techniques described by Searcy (1960) and Alley Burns (1983).Hydrologic simulation modelling or water budgeting techniques can also be used to synthesize hydrologic records for comparison using the IHAmethod (Linsley et al. 1982)73. Accounting for Climatic Differences Climatic differences between the pre- and post-impact time periods obviously have the potential to substantially influence the outcome of the IHA analysis. Various statistical techniques can be used to test for climatic differences in the hydrologic data to be compared. When the IHA analysis is to be based upon actual hydrologic measurements rather than estimates produced from models, a reference site or set of sites uninfluenced by the human alterations being examined can be used as climatic controls (Alley Burns 1983). For example, stream-gauge may exist upstream of a reservoir thought to have impacted study site. Analyses can establish a statistical relationship between stream-lows at the study site and at the upstream reference site using synchronous pre-dam data sets for the two sites. This relationship can then be used to estimate the stream-low conditions that would have occurred at the study site during the post-impact time period in the absence of the reservoir. IHA Application- Description of Study Site As mentioned earlier, the principal motive of this study is tantalize and evaluate the impacts, if any, of human interventions like reservoir operations on the overall sanctity and natural integrity, i.e. the natural hydrologic regime of water bodies like rivers. Here the operation of a well know reservoir in the south-west coast of Britain called the ‘Wimbleball reservoir’ has been identified as the human intervention point which is sufficiently used to store and supply water to cater to human needs like hydropower, drinking water supply, etc. (SW-Environment Agency, 2003)81 and eventually it ends up regulating a river system in the process. The down-stream water body and habitat, which is expected to come under the influence of the alterations resulting from the Wimbleball reservoir operations, considered here is the Exe-river estuary system. The main motivation for selection of the above reservoir and the river system happens to bathe strategically located river monitoring system (gauge-station),which falls in the influence zone. This station is designated as‘No.45001-Exe at Thorverton’ having a grid reference of ‘21 (SS) 936016’ (NRFA Data Holdings, 2005)66. Figure-2 (enclosed) shows diagrammatic representation of the Exe-river catchments area along with the positions of the river and reservoir. The national authority NRFA, describes the monitoring station as â€Å"Velocity-area station with cableway and flat V-Crump profile weir constructed in 1973 due to unstable bed condition† (NRFA, 2005)66. There also exists minor culvert flow through mill u/s of station included in rating. Notably, Low flows are affected significantly by the operations of the Wimbleballreservoir post-1979 and by exports to the Taw catchment. Station iscontrol point for operational releases from Wimbleball (NRFA DataHoldings, 2005)66. The headwaters drain Exmoor and the geology is predominantly Devonian sandstones and Carboniferous Culm Measures, with subordinate Permian sandstones in the east, Moorland, forestry and arrange of agriculture (NRFA Data Holdings, 2005)66. The Exe Estuary is partially an enclosed tidal area composed of both aquatic (marine, brackish and freshwater) and terrestrial habitats. The Estuary makes an important contribution to the diversity of British estuaries by virtue of its unspoilt nature, international conservation importance, recreational opportunities and high landscape value(SW-Environment Agency, 2003) . This Estuary flows through an open landscape with gently rolling hills on either side. It is shallower than many estuaries in the south west of England, so the tide plays significant role, wit